Another Addition to "Essential Vectors" Series
Understanding ground effect is important for safe takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds. Our latest "Essential Vectors" video provides a 9-minute review of the concepts and practical application of this often misunderstood concept. Click here to view it on YouTube.
Gene's Books
I am very happy to announce that all four of my e-books on Amazon are now available as audio books on both Amazon and Audible. Click here to find them all on my Amazon Author's Page.
Another New Edition of "Old Pilot Tips" is Available
Episode #30 in our series explains, in less than one minute, why it is essential to check for uninvited critters on our airplanes. Click here to check out "Squatters."
Recommended Online Course
As warm weather takes over from the cold and cool days of winter and spring, some warm weather safety concerns return. Check out our Avemco sponsored free online course, "Avoiding the Summer Flight Gotchas." Course completion, including successful completion of the quiz, will be valid to earn one credit for Basic Knowledge-2 and one credit for Advanced Knowledge-2 in the FAA Pilot Proficiency (Wings) Program. Click here to visit the course.
Now Offering a Full-Day Landings Workshop
Delivered either virtually or on-site, this in-depth program delves deep into making better and safer landings. Valid for 5 FAA Wings credits, this program can benefit pilots of all certification and experience levels. For more information or to schedule the workshop for your group or organization, click here or email gene@genebenson.com.
Virtual Presentations for Any Size Group Available for Free!
Flying Clubs, Pilot Associations, CAP, QB, 99s, FBOs, Flight Schools can all have no-cost virtual presentations courtesy of Avemco Insurance. Wings credit is available for all presentations. Virtual presentations can attended by members of your group wherever they may be, can be projected to a group at a central facility, or both simultaneously. Click here to download my updated presentation catalog. Concerned about the technology? Click here to download a Virtual Presentations Setup Guide. Email me at gene@genebenson.com for questions or to discuss scheduling.
Reaction Time
Reaction time is simply the elapsed time between perception of a stimulus and the action taken in response to that stimulus. Response time is frequently used interchangeably with reaction time.
The ability to react rapidly to a stimulus can be critical to daily life. A child running into the roadway or a vehicle ahead making a sudden stop when driving, a pan bursting into flames on the stove while cooking, or ball hurtling rapidly toward our head when playing a sport, are a few examples of the need for a rapid response time.
For pilots, an engine sputter during takeoff, flames seen coming from the engine compartment during cruise, another aircraft suddenly appearing on a collision course are instances of times when a quick reaction is critical.
Reaction time is dependent on a number of variables. Perception, made up of our five senses, is itself complex and has many components. Those senses must be working at a sufficient level for perception to occur. The stimulus must be processed and a response formulated. Processing speed is a distinct cognitive skill and is discussed separately. Motor agility must be adequate to effect the response whether it be closing an eyelid when a pointed object approaches, ducking our head to avoid a flying object, pressing the brake pedal in a car, or bracing for a fall after slipping on an icy sidewalk.
Reaction time is highly influenced by how many choices are available to the stimulus. A single available response can be extremely fast, but if multiple responses are available, the reaction time will increase. If there are multiple stimuli being presented concurrently, reaction time will be increased due to the time it takes to choose which stimulus is most in need of a response. The degree of familiarity with the stimulus will have a significant effect on the reaction time to that stimulus.
Reaction time can be adversely affected by any difficulty with any of the five senses. It can also be altered by injury or brain disorder. Since many of the elements of reaction time deteriorate with age, so does overall reaction time.
Click here to download the free "Aging Pilot Report."
Ground Effect – Friend or Foe?
Ground effect is that seemingly mysterious effect that cushions that almost hard landing or let us lift off early and accelerate near the ground to assist with that obstacle clearance takeoff.
Ground effect is like many other things with its upsides and downsides. A campfire is great until it catches the camper on fire. A playful kitten is great until sharp claws draw blood on your cheek. Layers of warm clothing are great in winter until you break through the ice on the pond. You get the idea.
When fully understood and considered during the planning and execution of every takeoff and landing, ground effect can be a good friend. But, if misunderstood or ignored, it can be a spiteful foe.
The basic concepts of the ground effects are simple. The airplane’s wingtip vortices interact with the surface, land or water causing a reduction in induced drag. Ground effect is only present when the altitude of the wing is not more than the airplane’s wingspan.
Helping us make smoother landings and assisting with short field takeoffs comes to mind first when we want to list the pros of ground effect. The reduced induced drag, and therefor reduced total drag, assisted crews of damaged B-17s in making it back to England during WWII by flying very low over the English Channel.
But we should be well-advised of ground effect’s sinister side. The landing approach that is just a bit too fast can result in undesirable floating before touchdown, sometimes causing a runway overrun. In some cases, that period of float has resulted in a crosswind rudely pushing an airplane beyond the runway edge causing a runway excursion. The nastier trick can happen on a takeoff or go-around. Ground effect fools the pilot into increasing the angle of attack since the airplane is accelerating and climbing well. That increased angle of attack just as the airplane exits ground effect can result in a low-altitude stall with little chance of recovery.
So, let’s be sure to always consider the potential influence of ground effect on our landings, takeoffs, and go-arounds.
For a brief review of what ground effect was once thought to be, what it really is, how it can help us, and how it can hurt us, click here watch our 9-minute video on YouTube.
Accidents discussed in this section are presented in the hope that pilots can learn from the misfortune of others and perhaps avoid an accident. It is easy to read an accident report and dismiss the cause as carelessness or as a dumb mistake. But let's remember that the accident pilot did not get up in the morning and say, "Gee, I think I'll go have an accident today." Nearly all pilots believe that they are safe. Honest introspection frequently reveals that on some occasion, we might have traveled down that same accident path.
This crash happened in Idaho in late July 2023. The 46-year-old, 108-hour private pilot and one front seat passenger were seriously injured while a second passenger in the rear seat received minor injuries. The airplane was a Beech 23.
NTSB Photo
The NTSB report includes the following: "The pilot reported that during the takeoff roll, he “saw rotate speed” and then pitched for best climb speed. He had no further memory of the event. A witness reported that they saw the airplane lift off from the runway and remain in ground effect until it crossed the departure end of the runway. As it crossed the departure end of the runway, it was in a left bank and then struck a tree. The airplane impacted a public beach and came to rest upright, in shallow water. The wings and fuselage sustained substantial damage. At 1535, the temperature was 30°C, the dewpoint was 4°C, and the altimeter setting was 29.98. The calculated density altitude was 4,790 ft. The pilot reported that there were no preaccident mechanical malfunctions or failures that would have precluded normal operation."
NTSB Photo
The NTSB probable cause states: "The pilot’s failure to maintain clearance from trees after takeoff, during high density altitude weather conditions."
It seems very likely that the relatively inexperienced pilot did not consider ground effect during this takeoff with a density altitude of 4,790 feet.
The pilot stated that he "saw rotate speed" and then pitched for best climb speed. It is likely that the airplane became airborne only due to ground effect and was unable to climb out of it. The report does not indicate how far down the runway the airplane lifted off, but perhaps if the pilot had recognized the situation and aborted the takeoff attempt, he might have been able to stop on the remaining runway, or perhaps had a runway overrun at a low speed, minimizing injuries. To the pilot's credit, he did not attempt to increase the angle of attack which would probably have resulted in a stall and an even less desirable outcome.
One more thing before we leave this crash. Those of you who have followed me for years may recall that I take every opportunity to advocate for the retrofit of better passenger restraint systems into older airplanes. The NTSB Pilot-Operator Report shows that the airplane was equipped with just lap belts and that they were used. Scroll back up to the accident photos and note that the two front seat occupants were seriously injured while the rear seat passenger received minor injuries. Make your own judgement as to whether harnesses or other restraint systems for the two front seats might have prevented the serious injuries. We will never know how this crash might have ended differently. The addition of harnesses is not that costly when we look at the total cost of flying. The cost/benefit analysis is an easy calculation.
Click here to download the accident report from the NTSB website.
Accidents discussed in this section are presented in the hope that pilots can learn from the misfortune of others and perhaps avoid an accident. It is easy to read an accident report and dismiss the cause as carelessness or as a dumb mistake. But let's remember that the accident pilot did not get up in the morning and say, "Gee, I think I'll go have an accident today." Nearly all pilots believe that they are safe. Honest introspection frequently reveals that on some occasion, we might have traveled down that same accident path.
This crash resulted in just minor injuries to the pilot and sole occupant of the Raytheon Aircraft Company 58 Baron. The crash occurred in Georgia in September 2024. The 60-year-old instrument rated private pilot had 2,568 hours total flight time including 779 hours in this make and model. He had a current medical certificate and flight review which had been accomplished in this make and model.
The NTSB report includes: "The pilot of the multiengine airplane was attempting to land on a 3,000-ft-long by 40-ft-wide, asphalt runway. He performed a go-around during his first approach as the airplane was too high. During the second approach, the airplane floated in ground effect and touched down long. The pilot realized the long landing too late to abort the landing, and applied heavy braking; however, the airplane departed the end of the runway and came to rest upright in a grass area. The airplane’s left wing and forward fuselage were substantially damaged. The pilot reported that there were no preimpact mechanical malfunctions or failures of the airplane that would have precluded normal operation."
NTSB Photo
The NTSB probable cause states: "The pilot’s failure to conduct a timely aborted landing, which resulted in a runway overrun."
NTSB Photo
The NTSB is of course correct in stating that the pilot failed to conduct a timely abort of the landing. But let's step back a bit. The 3000-foot -long runway should have been considered a short field for this airplane. There is no mention in either the NTSB report or in the Pilot-Operator Report of how the airplane flaps were configured for the landing, In the Pilot-Operator Report, the pilot stated "good speed at the Garmin 500' warning" but what precisely was "good speed?"
The NTSB report states that the airplane floated in ground effect. The airplane's wingspan is just shy of 38 feet and being a low-wing airplane, would have been subject to significant ground effect at any altitude below about 10 feet AGL. However, had the flaps been at full extension and the speed just above stall as recommended in the airplane manual for a short field landing, and had the aiming point been very near the approach end of the 3000' runway, significant float in ground effect seems unlikely.
NYSB Photo
A screenshot of the airport, Cedar Ridge Airport GA62, shows an unobstructed approach to Runway 18 which the NTSB report indicates was the landing runway. Without the need for obstacle clearance, a pilot with more than 700 hours in the make and model should have been able to touchdown at the appropriate speed and touchdown point. The accident photos do not show the flaps fully extended, but there are several possibilities regarding a change in flap settings either during the crash sequence or post crash.
Google Earth View of Approach Path for Runway 18
The lesson here is follow the manufacturer's recommended procedures, anticipate ground effect, and plan accordingly. The pilot must be given credit for not attempting a late go-around which could have had a much worse ending.
Click here to download the accident report from the NTSB website.
Accidents discussed in this section are presented in the hope that pilots can learn from the misfortune of others and perhaps avoid an accident. It is easy to read an accident report and dismiss the cause as carelessness or as a dumb mistake. But let's remember that the accident pilot did not get up in the morning and say, "Gee, I think I'll go have an accident today." Nearly all pilots believe that they are safe. Honest introspection frequently reveals that on some occasion, we might have traveled down that same accident path.
The 47-year-old, 584-hour instrument rated private pilot escaped injury in the runway excursion of a Piper PA 46-350P. The mishap occurred in Texas in January 2022. The NTSB report includes the following: "The pilot reported that while landing at his destination airport and entering ground effect on final approach, the airplane “was blown left” from the runway centerline and ballooned. The pilot pushed the nose over to keep the airplane from stalling. As the wheels touched down, the airplane veered to the left and exited the left side of the runway. The airplane sustained substantial damage to the right wing and flap. The pilot reported that there were no preaccident mechanical malfunctions or failures with the airplane that would have precluded normal operations. At the time of the accident, the pilot was landing the airplane on runway 13 with wind 180o at 8 knots, gusting to 14 knots."
NTSB Photo
The NTSB probable cause states: "The pilot’s failure to maintain directional control of the airplane during landing with a gusting crosswind that resulted in a runway excursion."
NTSB Photo showing skid marks on Runway 13
In the recommendation section of the Pilot-Operator Report the pilot states: "Use aileron to control drift. Keep nose straight with rudder. If wind balloons aircraft substantially, go around."
The pilot has stated a good lesson. I would add that we should always consider ground effect. Sometimes in a gusty wind situation, we add a few knots to our approach speed which may result in some float upon flare. This requires being alert and adjusting constantly for any crosswind. In this mishap it appears possible that the pilot may have been applying left rudder pressure when the nosewheel touched the runway. In this airplane, once the landing rear is extended, nosewheel steering is active. Any rudder pedal displacement would have resulted in an uncentered nosewheel and might explain the pilot's statement that the airplane veered to the left upon touchdown.
Click here to download the accident report from the NTSB website.
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